INTRODUCTION 1
1. EMPIRICISM VS. REALISM – THE PERENNIAL
DEBATE IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 9
Comte, Whewell, Mill, Mach, Boltzmann, Poincar´e,
Duhem, Campbell, Hempel, Harr´e, van Fraassen,
Laudan, Cartwright, Hacking, Putnam
2. FUNDAMENTAL AND REFINED PRINCIPLES:
THE CORE OF MODERN SCIENCE 49
1. Three Principles Central to Modern Science 53
2. Refinements of the Principles in Science 62
3. Four Ways Principles Function with Respect
to Science 65
4. On the Epistemological Status of the Principles
of Science 71
3. EMPIRICAL LAWS: THE SUPERVENTION
OF EXPERIENCE 73
1. The Uniformity Principle and Empirical Laws 74
2. The Substance Principle and Empirical Systems 79
3. Continuity 81
4. Necessity and Universality 82
5. Discovery, Prediction and Technology 83
6. The Supervention of Experience 85
7. Empirical Laws Require Explanation 94
vi CONTENTS
4. SCIENTIFIC THEORIES: CLOSING THE CIRCLE 95
1. Theoretical Reduction and the Closing of the Circle 96
2. The Substance Principle and Theoretical Ontologies 97
3. The Causality Principle and Causal Mechanisms 99
4. The Hypothetical Aspect of Theories 102
5. Explanation, Understanding and the Limits
of Intelligibility 104
5. THE PRINCIPLE-THEORY-LAW MODEL
OF SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION 109
1. Theoretical Models, Source-Analogues
and Abstraction 109
2. The Substantial, Formal and Causal Aspects
of a Theoretical Model 113
3. Theoretical Systems and the Derivation
of Empirical Laws 115
4. Theoretical Models Can Suggest Experiments
But Do Not Determine Their Results 120
5. The Nominal vs. the Real Aspect of the Subject 122
6. Idealisation 123
7. Explanation vs. Prediction 127
6. THE SOCIAL SCIENCES: A CONSIDERATION
OF ECONOMICS 130
1. The Principles of Rationality and Equilibrium 131
2. The Empirical Facts of Economics 134
3. Economic Models Are Theories 136
4. The Substantial, Causal and Formal Aspects
of Economic Models 138
5. Intentional Constructs and Empathetic Understanding 140
6. The Source and Subject of Economic Models 143
7. Abstraction and Idealisation 145
CONTENTS vii
7. NATURAL KINDS 148
1. What Are Natural Kinds for Modern Science? 148
2. Nominal and Real Essences: Key to the Understanding
of Natural Kinds 151
3. Natural Kinds in Biology 153
4. On Identifying Natural Kinds 157
5. Sets, Classes, Individuals and Natural Kinds 163
6. On Difference of Level and the Epistemological Status
of Attributions of Nominal and Real Essence 166
8. PROBABILITY AND CONFIRMATION 170
1. General Considerations Regarding Probability 170
2. Two Senses of the Word “Confirm” 171
3. Evidential Basis vs. Subject-Matter 172
4. Methodological Grounds and Inductive Probability 173
5. Subjective Probability and the Implications
of a Probability Claim 174
6. Knowledge-Relativity and the Propensity
Interpretation 175
7. Nominal vs. Real Probability Determinations 176
8. Methodological Requirements of Probability
Locutions 178
9. On the Acceptability of Scientific Theories 179
10. On the Confirmation of Experimental Laws 180
11. On the Applicability of Scientific Principles 181
9. EMPIRICISM VS. REALISM REVISITED 183
1. The Historical Debate 183
2. The Supervention of Experience 186
3. Ontology vs. Epistemology 188
4. Understanding vs. Knowledge 191
viii CONTENTS
10. MODERN SCIENCE AND THE FUTURE 193
1. A Particular Enterprise Emanating
from Particular Principles 193
2. The Revolution from Mythopoeic Thought 194
3. Three Streams in Greek Thought 196
4. Christianity, Platonism, Aristotelianism
and the Scientific Revolution 198
5. Intellectual and Practical Successes and Problems 203
6. What Next? 206
APPENDICES
I. THE VICIOUS CIRCLE PRINCIPLE
OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 209
1. The Vicious Circle Principle 210
2. Application and Corroboration 221
3. Conclusion 240
II . THE DEMARCATION OF MODERN SCIENCE
FROM MAGIC, ASTROLOGY, CHINESE MEDICINE
AND PARAPSYCHOLOGY 241
1. Magic 242
2. Astrology 248
3. Chinese Medicine 251
4. Parapsychology 253
5. Metaphysics and Worldviews 260
6. Historical Development of the Non-Physical 261
7. Modern Science and the Spirit 265
8. The Physical vs. the Spiritual 266
9. Conclusion 269
III . REPLY TO CRITICISM 270
1. The Deductive Model 272
2. The Perspectivist Conception 274
CONTENTS ix
3. Principles 280
4. Realism vs. Empiricism 287
5. Understanding vs. Knowledge 289
6. The PTL Model of Scientific Explanation 290
7. Quantum Mechanics 293
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